Child modeling

Practice

Artists have used children as models for countless works over the centuries. Child modeling has become a distinct activity because of the explosion of commercial media over the past several decades. Many young actors, notably Katherine Heigl, Lindsay Lohan, and Brooke Shields, began as child models. The book, Lisanne: A Young Model, described the life of Lisanne Falk, a colleague of Brooke Shields at the Ford modeling agency in the late 1970s. Falk, like Shields, was a relatively successful child model who posed for magazine covers, notably Seventeen, for editorial fashion layouts, and for advertising in magazines and mail-order catalogs. Both models appeared in the 1977 Sears and Montgomery Ward catalogs. Falk, like Shields, moved from modeling to movies as she became older. More recently Australian child model Morgan Featherstone has achieved world-wide success but has also attracted criticism due to her looking older than her age.

The visible success of child models who became media celebrities has led numerous children (and their parents) to pursue modeling as a part-time career. In practice, most modeling jobs go to children who have already worked as models and have developed a working relationship with a modeling agency. For prospective models, the challenge is to land the first job. This usually happens through referrals by people already involved in modeling. It's also possible to land jobs by contacting modeling agencies directly. Occasionally, a child may be "discovered" in a public place or through other grassroots means^[1], such as:

• Competing in local and national beauty contests
• Working with local retailers for small-scale modeling
• Entering mall fashion shows
• Entering photo contests

Child Modeling Scams

A reputable modeling agency does not require up-front payments or special training before taking on a new child model, and firms that require this should be carefully investigated before parents sign any contracts or agreements. If a photographic portfolio is required, it should be done by an independent professional photographer and not at the modeling agency. Furthermore, any agency that guarantees modeling work or high payments is likely not disclosing all the necessary details and should be treated cautiously.^[2]

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Kids and Money - Why Is It So Hard?

We learn so many things as we grow up. We learn how to walk, talk, and get away with not doing our homework. We learn how to play complicated games, many of them involving pretend money.

So, why is it so hard for us to learn how to manage money?

Why do so many people struggle to make ends meet, even on reasonably high incomes?

Why do so few people manage to provide sufficiently for themselves in retirement?

It’s not rocket science. We know what it takes. And there are some people doing it. So why isn’t basic money management as widely understood as basic geometry?

Imagine what life would be like if making money came as easily and naturally as riding a bike or tying your shoelaces. Imagine graduating high school with a permanent, secure, passive income already in place. You wake each the morning to find more money has appeared in your account overnight! If you want to travel, you do. If you want to paint, write, or do any other creative activity, you do. You choose your occupation based on what you love to do, not the burden of having to pay the bills. You have all the time you need to socialise with your family and friends, to stay in shape, and to practice your spirituality.

This world is not a pipe-dream. It’s not unrealistic. The world is alive with opportunity, more so now than ever before, and the opportunity is expanding exponentially.

With the right knowledge and attitudes, today’s kids can capture their share of that opportunity, and set themselves up for life.

So, why isn’t everyone doing it?

Because not everyone’s parents have the right knowledge and attitudes to pass along to their kids. Some of those who have the knowledge and attitudes are still setting themselves up in life, working long hours, and find it difficult to break the knowledge down into terms their kids can understand.

What can we do about it?

As parents, we need to be conscious that financial education ranks up there with education about nutrition, health, and communication. We must educate ourselves, so that we can educate our children.

There are many places to go on the web to get that vital financial education.

The Cash Smart Kids program (http://www.cash-smart-kids.com) provides lessons for the kids, plus additional reference material for their parents.

The Rich Dad website (http://www.richdad.com) is rich in content, and contains information about the Cashflow series of educational board games.

There are numerous e-Books, ezine articles, and offline financial publications with an online presence.

And, of course, there are dozens of relevant books in your local book store.



by: Jenny Ford

Discipline - Be Clear, Be Firm, Be Consistent

by: Helen Williams

Children learn best by being given clear, firm and consistent direction from parents who are clear, firm and consistent in their approach

How to Discipline Children by Being Clear:

Firstly find and maintain clarity within yourself and then follow through on simple, clear instructions. Clarify for your self what being clear means.

It is about being plain, obvious, and understandable in a clear, short sentence that explains exactly what you mean.

It isn't about maybe this or maybe that.

Often parents have no idea that they chop and change their minds within minutes. To become clear about your own patterns of behavior, observe yourself and ask for your partner's help in this.

"We are going to tidy up your toys in five minutes", is clear and direct. Follow this with,

"Please help me tidy up your toys now" and it means just that.

Be firm with yourself about this. It doesn't mean soon, or later, but now.

I have seen parents give out this simple instruction, then become distracted themselves by a television program, conversation or magazine. What their children observe is parents saying one thing and doing another and this gives a much distorted message. Multiplied over many times each day, is it any wonder that children cease to follow simple instructions?

How to Discipline Children by Being Firm:

Firstly find and maintain firmness for yourself and then follow through with firm clear directions in a firm, clear tone.

Clarify for your self what being firm means.

To be firm is to be certain, definite, and determined. It is also being loving, kind and calm.

It means saying no and meaning no, or saying yes and meaning yes and sticking to it. It's about now being now. How often does your no become perhaps, later, maybe giving in, next time, soon, or alright then? This is a very common fault in how to discipline children and again it leads to numerous mixed messages for children.

Resolve within yourself and with your partner's help to ascertain how often you are both easily swayed into changing your decisions. Are you allowing your children to manipulate you? Imagine how simple your life will become when you are clear and firm within yourself.

It is every child's right to KNOW they can trust their parent's boundaries. So firstly, become firm with your own boundaries and then apply this to your parenting discipline.

"It is bedtime, (bath time, meal time) in five minutes" is a clear direction. Now follow through on this.

Giving the direction in a calm, clear, firm tone of voice helps your children to understand that you mean what you say. Being firm is about being in control of both yourself and the situation.

How to Discipline Children by Being Consistent:

Firstly find and maintain consistency for yourself and then follow through with a firm, clear, consistent approach.

Clarify for yourself what being consistent means.

To be consistent is to be reliable, dependable and constant.

These words immediately convey comfort don't they?

Let's look at the opposite of being consistent. Contradictory, unpredictable, changeable. That's definitely lacking in comfort and safety.

So how do you want to be seen by your children?

To begin with it can seem quite time consuming to concentrate on clear, firm, consistent guidelines. Be aware that this is very true. It takes concentrated effort and time to change old habits to new ones, but if you maintain consistency, you will be very surprised how quickly new patterns of behavior are formed.

Parenting Discipline In Summary: With parenting discipline we are teaching our children how to have self control, self discipline and to become self reliant, so they are able to make good choices for themselves.

The only way children can learn to do this is by being given the opportunities for this learning.

This means not over protecting them, or doing everything for them, but maximizing their opportunities to learn through personal experience and observation, even when this means making mistakes.

Can you see the opportunities here to change some of your own patterns of behavior into superior ones?

Clear, firm, consistent parenting is quality parenting. You learn to trust your own responses and your children are surrounded by your loving constancy.

This is the recipe for creating a happy, well adjusted family.

Preschool For Children

Preschool education

Preschool education is the provision of education for children before the commencement of statutory education, usually between the ages of two and five, dependent on the jurisdiction. Preschool is also known as nursery school, day care or kindergarten (other than in the USA, where kindergarten is part of the statutory education system, preceding first grade).^{[citation needed]}

Developmental areas

The areas of development which preschool education covers varies from country to country. However the following main 'themes' are represented in the majority of systems.^[1][2]

• Personal, social and emotional development
• Communication, including talking and listening
• Knowledge and understanding of the world
• Creative and aesthetic development
• Physical development
• Mathematical awareness and development

Ages for and importance of preschool education

Preschool is generally considered appropriate for children between three and five years of age, between the toddler and school stages. During this stage of development, children learn and assimilate information rapidly, and express interest and fascination in each new discovery. These qualities make them prime candidates for education, although most are not ready for structured primary or elementary education.^{[citation needed]}

Universal preschool is an international movement that has made access to preschool available to families in a similar way to compulsory elementary education. Various jurisdictions and advocates have differing priorities for access, availability and funding sources.

Methods of preschool education

Parents are a child's best resource for education before school. Research shows that the more time and effort parents, caregivers, or teachers at preschools give to the child, the better a preschool child will be able to adjust to their environment.^{[citation needed]}

Some preschools have adopted specialized methods of teaching, such as Montessori, Waldorf, High Scope,^[3] The Creative Curriculum^[4] Reggio Emilia approach, Bank Street and various other pedagogies which contribute to the foundation of education.

In the United States most preschool advocates support the National Association for the Education of Young Children's Developmentally Appropriate Practices.

Day care

In the USA Child Care Centers provide a preschool curriculum and do not just "babysit". Daycare/childcare centers provide services to children whose parents work or go to school. Child Care Centers should have a preschool program built into their morning routine.Regulations for requirements that must be met to ensure licensing vary from state to state. Programs are designed to provide children with the best quality programs for an entire day. In 2006, the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC), a non-profit organization, introduced an accreditation program for these centres, which measures the quality environment for early learners and requires that staff have degrees in early childhood education.

References

1. ^ The foundation stage: education for children aged 3 to 5
2. ^ A Curriculum Framework for Children 3 to 5
3. ^ High Scope
4. ^ The Creative Curriculum

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Baby food

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Baby food is any food, other than breastmilk or infant formula, that is given specifically to infants, roughly between the ages of four months to two years. The food comes in multiple varieties and tastes, can be produced by many manufacturers, or may be table food that the rest of the family is eating, mashed up. A common trait of the many different baby foods is that they are designed for ease of eating; either a soft, liquidy paste or an easily chewed food. This is because infants lack teeth and experience in eating.

Nutrition

Babies typically move to consuming baby food once nursing or formula is not sufficient for the child's appetite. Babies do not need to have teeth to transition to eating solid foods. Teeth, however, normally do begin to show up at this age. Care should be taken with certain foods that pose a choking hazard such as hot dogs, popcorn, grapes, and hard candy. No salt should be added to baby food as babies´ kidneys are not ready for salt.^{[citation needed]} Babies should begin eating liquid style baby food, sometimes mixed with rice cereal and formula, or breast milk. Pureed vegetables and fruits are an example of liquid style baby food. Then as baby is better able to chew, small, soft pieces or lumps may be included. Care should be taken, as babies with teeth have the ability to break off pieces of food but they do not possess the back molars to grind, so parents should carefully mash or break baby food into manageable pieces for baby. Around 9 months of age, babies may begin to feed themselves (picking up food pieces with hands, using the pincer grasp- thumb and forefinger) with help from parents.

It is often recommended to give baby solid food at around 6 months of age, but babies differ greatly. The only good way to know when to introduce baby food is to watch for signs of readiness in the child. Signs of readiness include the ability to sit without help and the display of active interest in food that others are eating. Baby may be started directly on normal family food if attention is given to choking hazards, this is referred to as baby-led weaning. Because breast milk takes on the flavor of foods eaten by the mother, these foods are especially good choices.

One may wish to introduce only one new food at a time, leaving a few days in between to notice any reactions that would indicate a food allergy or sensitivity. This way if baby is unable to tolerate a certain food then it can be determined which food is causing the reaction.

In the 20th century, it was common to start infants on solid food from 4+ months onwards – however current research and WHO/UNICEF "Baby Friendly" guidelines recommend only breast milk until at least 6 months of age.^{[citation needed]}

See also: Baby-led weaning

History

From Cookery for Children, Sarah Josepha Hale, 1852:^[1]

“

Food for a young infant — Take of fresh cow's milk one table-spoons full, and mix with 2 table-spoonsfull of hot water; sweeten with loaf-sugar as much as may be agreeable. This quantity if sufficient for once feeding a new-born infant; and the same quantity may be given every 2 or 3 hours—not oftener—till the mother's breast affords the natural nourishment.

”

In most cultures, pastes of a grain and liquid were the first baby food. In the western world until the mid 1900's baby food was generally made at home. The industrial revolution saw the beginning of the baby food market which promoted baby foods as convenience items.^[2] Commercially prepared baby foods in the Netherlands were first prepared by Martinus van der Hagen through his NV Nutricia company in 1901.^[3] In United States they were first prepared by Dorothy Gerber in 1927.^[4] The first precooked dried baby food was Pablum which was originally made for sick children in the 1930s.

Some commercial baby foods have been criticized for their contents and cost.^[5]

The demand for organic food began to grow throughout the '60s, '70s and '80s there were no companies producing completely organic baby food until Earths Best Baby Food was founded in 1987 by twin brothers Ronald and Arnold Koss.^{[citation needed]} Since this innovation many larger commercial manufacturers have introduced organic lines of baby food.

Around the world

Please help improve this article or section by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page or at requests for expansion. (June 2007)

Baby food varies from culture to culture. In the United States babies are usually started with bland cereals and then move on to mashed fruits and vegetables. In Japan home made baby food is common and babies are started on rice porridge called okayu and then move on to mashed fruits, vegetables, tofu and fish.^[6] In Sweden, it is common to start with mashed fruit, such as bananas. Oatmeal and mashed vegetables are also recommended.

Variations

Baby food is available in dry, ready-to-feed and frozen forms, which are prepared by the caregiver or parent in small batches and fed to the child. Dry baby food, such as rice or oatmeal cereals, are mixed with a liquid until reconstituted.

Frozen baby food is a form of heat processed baby food that enables lower cooking temperatures by finalizing the product in a frozen, rather than the more traditional jarred, form. Frozen baby food is made by cooking, pureeing and freezing fresh fruits and vegetables. Frozen baby food is an alternative for parents who make baby food at home and freeze it in ice cube trays. Some nutritionists believe that freezing gently cooked ripe produce could be even healthier than cooking under-ripe produce^{[citation needed]}. While major baby food companies have yet to venture into a frozen product, they have been galloping toward organics. Sales of organic baby food have shot up 58 percent in five years, 16 percent in the last year alone, according to ACNielsen.^{[citation needed}

References

1. ^ Feeding America
2. ^ The Food Timeline-baby food history notes
3. ^ Nutricia
4. ^ Corporate Site: Great Inventions
5. ^ Cheating Babies: Nutritional Quality and Cost of Commercial Baby Food
6. ^ FW-91 - Homemade Baby Food: Fast, Frugal, and Fun | www.japaninc.com

Denver Scale

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

The Denver Developmental Screening Test (DDST), commonly known as the Denver Scale, is a test for screening cognitive and behavioural problems in preschool children. It was developed by William K. Frankenburg and first introduced by him and J.B. Dobbs in 1967.^[1] The test is currently marketed by Denver Developmental Materials, Inc., in Denver, Colorado, hence the name.

The scale reflects what percentage of a certain age group is able to perform a certain task. In a test to be administered by a pediatrician or other health or social service professional, a subject's performance against the regular age distribution is noted. Tasks are grouped into four categories (social contact, fine motor skill, language, and gross motor skill) and include items such as smiles spontaneously (performed by 90% of three-month-olds), knocks two building blocks against each other (90% of 13-month-olds), speaks three words other than "mom" and "dad" (90% of 21-month-olds), or hops on one leg (90% of 5-year-olds).

According to a study commissioned by the Public Health Agency of Canada, the DDST is the most widely used test for screening developmental problems in children.^[2] While this study acknowledges the test's utility for detecting severe developmental problems, the test has been criticized to be unreliable in predicting less severe or specific problems. The same criticism has been upheld for the currently marketed revised version of the Denver Scale, the Denver-II.^[3]. Frankenburg has replied to such criticism by pointing out that the Denver Scale is not a tool of final diagnosis, but a quick method to process large numbers of children in order to identify those that should be further evaluated.^[4]

This revised definition of the Denver's function remains commensurate with what screening tests are designed to do: sort those who probably have problems from those who probably don't. Thus standards for screening test construction still apply to the Denver. Although the instrument has proven reliability, it was not constructed on a large, current, nationally representative sample. It has not been studied for validity (given alongside diagnostic measures to view their relationship or researched for the kinds of problems it may or may not detect). As a consequence, the measure was not studied by its authors for the most critical attribute of any screen, its accuracy. Studies by other researchers showed it to detect only about 50% of children with disabilities, although its specificity in identifying normally developing children is high (when questionables are grouped with normal scores) and the converse when questionable scores are grouped with abnormal results. Since 1991, researchers have appealed to the author to recall and improve the measure but to no avail. Currently the measure is excluded from lists of recommended tools in several states (e.g., Minnesota Department of Education. For a list of accurate alternatives see The website of the American Academy of Pediatrics' Section on Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics

References

1. ^ Frankenburg, William K.; Dobbs, J.B. (1967). "The Denver Developmental Screening Test". The Journal of Pediatrics 71 (71): 181–191. doi:10.1016/S0022-3476(67)80070-2.
2. ^ Canadian Task Force on the Periodic Health Examination (1994) The Canadian Guide to Clinical Preventive Health Care. Ottawa: Minister of Supply and Services Canada. Chapter 26 "Preschool Screening for Developmental Problems" [1]
3. ^ Glascoe, Frances Page et al. (1992). "Accuracy of the Denver-II in Developmental Screening". Pediatrics (89): 1221–1225.
4. ^ Frankenburg, William K. (2002). "Developmental Surveillance and Screening of Infants and Young Children". Pediatrics 109 (109): 144–145. doi:10.1542/peds.109.1.144. PMID 11773555

healhty

Children's Health

Your child's health includes physical, mental and social well-being. Most parents know the basics of keeping children healthy, like offering them healthy foods, making sure they get enough sleep and exercise and insuring their safety.

It is also important for children to get regular checkups with their health care provider. These visits are a chance to check your child's development. They are also a good time to catch or prevent problems.

Other than checkups, school-age children should be seen for

• Significant weight gain or loss
• Sleep problems or change in behavior
• Fever higher than 102
• Rashes or skin infections
• Frequent sore throats
• Breathing problems

Infant and Toddler Health

Most young children get sick. It is hard for parents to know what is serious. You can learn what the common warning signs are. In the end, trust your intuition. If you are worried about your baby, call your health care provider right away.

Well-baby visits are important to your baby's health. A newborn usually needs to be seen by a health care provider every few months. As children reach their first birthday, most do not need to go as often. Babies will get their recommended immunizations during these visits. Routine exams and screenings help you and your kids prevent and treat health problems as well as chart their growth and development.

Exercise for Children

Like adults, kids need exercise. Most children need at least an hour of physical activity every day. Regular exercise helps children

• Feel less stressed
• Feel better about themselves
• Feel more ready to learn in school
• Keep a healthy weight
• Build and keep healthy bones, muscles and joints
• Sleep better at night

As kids spend more time watching TV, they spend less time running and playing. Parents should limit TV, video game and computer time. Parents can set a good example by being active themselves. Exercising together can be fun for everyone. Competitive sports can help kids stay fit. Walking or biking to school, dancing, bowling and yoga are some other ways for kids to get exercise.

recipe

Carrot Puree recipe

1 carrot
1/4 teaspoon sweet butter

Scrub the carrot thoroughly and chop into pieces. Put into a small saucepan and cover with plenty of water. Boil until the carrot is very tender and mushy (about 30 minutes).

Place the carrot in a blender or food processor and add the butter and a little bit of the cooking water. Blend until smooth.

Home Made Organic Baby Cereal recipe

Using a food processor or blender, blend organic brown rice until it is finely ground, like a flour. Boil some water in a saucepan with a lid, about 2 cups, slowly whisk in about 1/4 cup of the rice flour. Cover and turn down to minimum heat. Stir every 2 minutes for 10 minutes.

This will last in the refrigerator for 2 or 3 days. As your baby gets older, you can begin using all sorts of different grains and then legumes such as brown rice, oatmeal, millet, garbanzo beans and black beans. Just blend into flour and cook.

Meat Balls recipe

For 10 months or older.

1/2 pound lean ground beef or pork
1/2 cup mashed potatoes or rolled oats

Combine the meat and potatoes or oatmeal, mixing well. Form into balls about 1 inch in diameter. Place meatballs on a baking sheet and bake at 350 degrees F for 20 minutes, or cook in a skillet until done in the middle. Drain off fat.

Use the cooled meatballs as finger foods for snacks or meals. Label and store the extra meatballs in the freezer. Use within one month.

Bread Crumb Pudding recipe

1 cup white bread crumbs
1/4 cup cream
1 teaspoon lemon juice
1/8 cup diced apples
1/8 cup diced dried apricots

Blend and serve.

CHILD

CHILD

A child is most often defined as a young human being between birth and puberty; a boy or girl. The legal definition of "child" generally refers to a minor, otherwise known as a person younger than the age of majority. "Child" may also describe a relationship with a parent or authority figure, or signify group membership in a clan, tribe, or religion; it can also signify being strongly affected by a specific time, place, or circumstance, as in "a child of nature" or "a child of the Sixties."^[1]

Child development

refers to the biological and psychological changes that occur in human beings between birth and the end of adolescence, as the individual progresses from dependency to increasing autonomy. Because these developmental changes may be strongly influenced by genetic factors and events during prenatal life, genetics and prenatal development are usually included as part of the study of child development. Related terms include "developmental psychology", referring to development throughout the lifespan and "pediatrics", the branch of medicine relating to the care of children. Developmental change may occur as a result of genetically-controlled processes known as maturation, or as a result of environmental factors and learning, but most commonly involves an interaction between the two.

Age-related development terms are: newborn (ages 0–1 month); infant (ages 1 month – 1 year); toddler (ages 1–3 years); preschooler (ages 4–6 years); school-aged child (ages 6–13 years); adolescent (ages 13–18).^[1] However, organizations like Zero to Three and the World Association for Infant Mental Health use the term infant as a broad category, including children from birth to age 3, a logical decision considering that the Latin derivation of the word infant refers to those who have no speech, and speech is generally well-established by 3 years. The optimal development of children is considered vital to society and so it is important to understand the social, cognitive, emotional, and educational development of children. Increased research and interest in this field has resulted in new theories and strategies, with specific regard to practice that promotes development within the school system. In addition there are also some theories that seek to describe a sequence of states that comprise child development.

Mechanisms of development

See also: Nature versus nurture

Although developmental change runs parallel with chronological age, age itself cannot cause development. The basic mechanisms or causes of developmental change are genetic factors and environmental factors. Genetic factors are responsible for cellular changes like overall growth, changes in proportion of body and brain parts, and the maturation of aspects of function such as vision and dietary needs. Because genes can be "turned off" and "turned on", the individual's initial genotype may change in function over time, giving rise to further developmental change. Environmental factors affecting development may include both diet and disease exposure, as well as social, emotional, and cognitive experiences. However, examination of environmental factors also shows that young human beings can survive within a fairly broad range of environmental experiences. ^[4]

Rather than acting as independent mechanisms, genetic and environmental factors often interact to cause developmental change. Some aspects of child development are notable for their plasticity, or the extent to which the direction of development is guided by environmental factors as well as initiated by genetic factors. For example, the development of allergic reactions appears to be caused by exposure to certain environmental factors relatively early in life, and protection from early exposure makes the child less likely to show later allergic reactions. When an aspect of development is strongly affected by early experience, it is said to show a high degree of plasticity; when the genetic make-up is the primary cause of development, plasticity is said to be low.^[5] Plasticity may involve guidance by endogenous factors like hormones as well as by exogenous factors like infection.

One kind of environmental guidance of development has been described as experience-dependent plasticity, in which behavior is altered as a result of learning from the environment. Plasticity of this type can occur throughout the lifespan and may involve many kinds of behavior, including some emotional reactions. A second type of plasticity, experience-expectant plasticity, involves the strong effect of specific experiences during limited sensitive periods of development. For example, the coordinated use of the two eyes, and the experience of a single three-dimensional image rather than the two-dimensional images created by light in each eye, depend on experiences with vision during the second half of the first year of life. Experience-expectant plasticity works to fine-tune aspects of development that cannot proceed to optimum outcomes as a result of genetic factors working alone. ^[6]

In addition to the existence of plasticity in some aspects of development, genetic-environmental correlations may function in several ways to determine the mature characteristics of the individual. Genetic-environmental correlations are circumstances in which genetic factors make certain experiences more likely to occur. For example, in passive genetic-environmental correlation, a child is likely to experience a particular environment because his or her parents' genetic make-up makes them likely to choose or create such an environment. in evocative genetic-environmental correlation, the child's genetically-caused characteristics cause other people to respond in certain ways, providing a different environment than might occur for a genetically-different child; for instance, a child with Down syndrome may be treated more protectively and less challengingly than a non-Down child. Finally, an active genetic-environmental correlation is one in which the child chooses experiences that in turn have their effect; for instance, a muscular, active child may choose after-school sports experiences that create increased athletic skills, but perhaps preclude music lessons. In all of these cases, it becomes difficult to know whether child characteristics were shaped by genetic factors, by experiences, or by a combination of the two ^[7]

Aspects of child development

Child development is not a matter of a single topic, but progresses somewhat differently for different aspects of the individual. Here are descriptions of the development of a number of physical and mental characteristics.

Physical growth

Physical growth in stature and weight occurs over the 15-20 years following birth, as the individual changes from the average weight of 7 1/2 pounds and length of 20" at full-term birth to full adult size. As stature and weight increase, the individual's proportions also change, from the relatively large head and small torso and limbs of the neonate, to the adult's relatively small head and long torso and limbs

Motor development

Abilities for physical movement change through childhood from the largely reflexive (unlearned,involuntary) movement patterns of the young infant to the highly skilled voluntary movements characteristic of later childhood and adolescence. (Of course, older children and adolescents retain some reflex movements in addition to developing voluntary movement.)

Cognitive development

The capacity to learn, remember, and symbolize information, and to solve problems, exists at a simple level in young infants, who can perform cognitive tasks such as discriminating animate and inanimate beings or recognizing small numbers of objects. During childhood, learning and information-processing increase in speed, memory becomes increasingly longer, and symbol use and the capacity for abstraction develop until a near-adult level is reached by adolescence.

Social-emotional development

Newborn infants do not seem to experience fear or have preferences for contact with any specific people.By about 8-10 months, they go through a fairly rapid change and become fearful of perceived threats; they also begin to prefer familiar people and show anxiety and distress when separated from them or approached by strangers. The capacity for empathy and the understanding of social rules begin in the preschool period and continue to develop into adulthood. Middle childhood is characterized by friendships with age-mates, and adolescence by emotions connected with sexuality and the beginnings of romantic love. Anger seems most intense during the toddler and early preschool period and during adolescence.

Language

There are four main areas in which the child must attain competence, regardless of the language or dialect spoken. These are referred to as phonology or sounds, semantics or the encoded meanings, syntax or the way in which words are combined and pragmatics or knowledge of how language is used in different contexts.